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The Normans were a people from medieval northern France, deriving to a large extent their aristocratic origins from Scandinavia (the name is adapted from the name "Northmen" or "Norsemen"). They played a major political, military and cultural role in the northern and Mediterranean parts of medieval Europe and the Near East, eg. the colonisation (and naming) of Normandy, the Norman Conquest of England of England, the establishment of states in Norman conquest of southern Italy, and the crusades.

In fact, by the time of the invasion of England, most "Normans" were derived from the indigenous populations of eastern Brittany and western Flanders, but their lords retained a memory of their own Viking origins. They began to occupy the northern area of France now known as Normandy in the latter half of the 9th century. In 911, Charles the Simple, king of France, granted the invaders the small lower Seine area, which expanded over time to become the Duchy of Normandy. The invaders were under the leadership of Rollo of Normandy, who swore allegiance to Charles the Simple.

The Norman people adopted Christianity and the Gallo-Romance languages and created a new cultural identity separate from that of their Scandinavian forebears and French neighbours. Norman culture, like that of many other migrant communities, was particularly enterprising and adaptable. For a time, it led them to occupy widely dispersed territories throughout Europe.

The Normans should not be confused with the Northmen, that is, the Vikings from the North. In Russian historiography, however, the term "Norman", is often used for the Varangians, as for example in the term "Rus' (people)#The Normanist theory ". In French historiography, too, the term is often applied to the various Viking groups which raided France in the ninth century before settling down to found Normandy.

Norman characteristics In a famous passage, Geoffrey Malaterra characterised the Normans thusly:specially marked by cunning, despising their own inheritance in the hope of winning a greater, eager after both gain and dominion, given to imitation of all kinds, holding a certain mean between lavishness and greediness, that is, perhaps uniting, as they certainly did, these two seemingly opposite qualities. Their chief men were specially lavish through their desire of good report. They were, moreover, a race skillful in flattery, given to the study of eloquence, so that the very boys were orators, a race altogether unbridled unless held firmly down by the yoke of justice. They were enduring of toil, hunger, and cold whenever fortune laid it on them, given to hunting and hawking, delighting in the pleasure of horses, and of all the weapons and garb of war."Malaterra in Peter Gunn, Normandy: Landscape with Figures.Their quick adaptability expressed itself in the shrewd Norman willingness to take on local men of talent, to marry the high-born local women; confidently illiterate Norman masters used the literate clerks of the church for their own purpose.

Normans and Normandy Geographically, Normandy was approximately the same region as the old church province of Rouen and what was called Brittania Nova as well as western Flanders. It had no natural frontiers and was previously merely an administrative unit. Historically, its population was mostly French people. Added on top of that were the Viking settlers who had begun arriving in the 880s, and who were divided between a small colony in Upper (or eastern) Normandy and a larger one in Lower (or western) Normandy.

In the course of the 10th century the initial destructive incursions of Norse war bands into the rivers of Gaul evolved into more permanent encampments that included women and chattel. The paganism culture was driven underground by the Christian faith and Gallo-Romance languages of the local people. The small group of Vikings that settled there adopted the language and culture of the French majority. After a generation or two, the Normans were generally indistinguishable from their French neighbours.

In Normandy they adopted the growing feudal doctrines of the rest of northern France, and worked them, both in Normandy and in England, into a functional hierarchical system. The Norman warrior class was new and different from the old French nobility, many of whom could trace their families back to Carolingian times, while the Normans could seldom cite ancestors before the beginning of the 11th century. Most knights remained poor and land-hungry; by 1066, Normandy had been exporting fighting horsemen for more than a generation. Knighthood before the time of the Crusades held little social status, and simply indicated that a man was a professional warrior and wealthy enough to own a war horse. Many Normans of France and Britain would eventually serve as avid Crusaders.

The Norman language was forged by the adoption of the indigenous Oïl languages by a Old Norse language-speaking ruling class developed into the Languages of France which survives today.

Norman conquests Normans in Italy .Opportunistic bands of Normans successfully established a foothold far to the south of Normandy. Probably the result of returning pilgrims' stories, the Normans entered the Mezzogiorno as warriors in 1017 at the latest. In 999, according to Amatus of Montecassino, pilgrims returning from Jerusalem called in at the port of Salerno, when a Saracen attack occurred. The Normans fought so valiantly that Guaimar IV of Salerno begged them to stay, but they refused and instead offered to tell others back home of the prince's request. William of Apulia tells that, in 1016, pilgrims to the shrine of the Archangel Michael at Monte Gargano were met by Melus of Bari, a lombards freedom-fighter, who persuaded them to return with more warriors to help throw off the byzantine Empire rule, and so they did.

The two most prominent families to arrive in the Mediterranean were the descendants of Tancred of Hauteville and the Drengots, of whom Rainulf Drengot received the county of Aversa, the first Norman toehold in the south, from Duke Sergius IV of Naples in 1030. The Hauteville family achieved princely status when they proclaimed Prince Guaimar IV of Salerno "Duke of Apulia and Calabria". He promptly awarded their elected leader, William Iron Arm, with the title of count with his capital of Melfi. Soon the Drengots had attained unto the principality of Capua and the Emperor Henry III had legally ennobled the Hauteville leader, Drogo of Hauteville, as dux et magister Italiae comesque Normannorum totius Apuliae et Calabriae in 1047.

, a Siculo-Norman palace in PalermoFrom these bases, the Normans were eventually able to capture Sicily and Malta from the Saracens under the famous Robert Guiscard, a Hauteville, and his young brother Roger I of Sicily. Roger's son, Roger II of Sicily, was crowned king in 1130 (exactly one century after Rainulf was "crowned" count) by Pope Anacletus II. The kingdom of Sicily lasted until 1194, when it fell to the Hohenstaufens through marriage.

The Normans left their mark however in the many castles, such as the Iron Arm's fortress at Squillace, and cathedrals, such as Roger II's at Cefalù, which dot the landscape and give a wholly distinct architectural flavour to accompany its unique history. Institutionally, the Normans combined the administrative machinery of the Byzantines, Arabs, and Lombards with their own conceptions of feudal law and order to forge a completely unique government. Under this state, there was great religious freedom, and alongside the Norman nobles existed a meritocratic bureaucracy of Jews, Moslems, and Christians, both Catholic and Orthodox.

Normans in Byzantium Soon after the Normans first began to enter Italy, they entered the Byzantine Empire and soon thereafter Armenia against the Pechenegs, Bulgars, and especially Seljuk Turks. The Norman mercenaries first encouraged to come to the south by the Lombards to act against the Byzantines were soon fighting in Byzantine service in Sicily. They were prominent alongside Varangian and Lombard contingents in the Sicilian campaign of George Maniaches of 1038-1040. There is some debate concerning whether the Normans in Greek service were mostly or at all from Norman Italy and it now seems likely that only a few came from there. It is also unknown how many of the "Franks", as the Byzantines called them, were Normans and not other Frenchmen.

One of the first Norman mercenaries to serve as a Byzantine general was Hervé (Norman) in the 1050s. By then however there were already Norman mercenaries serving as far away as Trebizond and Georgia (country). They were based at Malatya and Edessa, Mesopotamia, under the Byzantine duke of Antioch, Isaac Komnenos, Duke of Antioch. In the 1060s, one Robert Crispin led the Normans of Edessa against the Turks. Roussel de Bailleul even tried to carve out an independent state in Asia Minor and had the support of the local population, but he was stopped by the Byzantine general Alexius I Comnenus.

Some Normans joined Turkish forces and aided in the destruction of the Armenians vassal-states of Sassoun and Taron in far eastern Anatolia. Later, many took up service with the Armenian states further south in Cilicia and the Taurus Mountains. A Norman named Oursel led a force of "Franks" into the upper Euphrates valley in northern Syria. From 1073 to 1074, 8,000 of the 20,000 troops of the Armenian general Philaretus Brachamius were Normans — formerly of Oursel — led by Raimbaud. They even lent their ethnicity to the name of their castle: Afranji, meaning "Franks." The known trade between Republic of Amalfi and Antioch and between Bari and Tarsus (city) may be related to the presence of Italo-Normans in those cities while Amalfi and Bari were under Norman rule in Italy.

Several families of Byzantine Greece were of Norman mercenary origin during the period of the Comnenian Restoration, when Byzantine emperors were seeking out western European warriors. The Raoulii were descended from an Italo-Norman named Raoul, the Petraliphae were descended from a Pierre d'Aulps, and that group of Albanian clans known as the Maniakates were descended from Normans who served under George Maniaches in the Sicilian expedition of 1038.

Normans in England castle from the Bayeux Tapestry.The Normans were in contact with England from an early date. Not only were their original pagan Viking brethren still ravaging the English coasts, but they occupied most of the important ports opposite England across the English Channel. This relationship eventually produced closer ties of blood through the marriage of Emma of Normandy, sister of Duke Richard II of Normandy, and King Ethelred II of England. Because of this, Ethelred fled to Normandy in 1013, when he was forced from his kingdom by Sweyn Forkbeard. His stay in Normandy (until 1016) influenced him and his sons by Emma, who stayed in Normandy after Canute the Great's conquest of the isle. When finally Edward the Confessor returned from his father's refuge in 1041, at the invitation of his half-brother Hardecanute, he brought with him a very Norman-educated mind. He also brought many Norman counsellors and fighters. He even hired a small number of Normans to train and establish an English cavalry force. This concept never really took root, but it is a typical example of the attitudes of Edward. He appointed Robert of Jumieges archbishop of Canterbury and made Ralph the Timid earl of Hereford. He invited his brother-in-law Eustace II of Boulogne to his court in 1051, an event which resulted in the greatest of early conflicts between Saxon and Norman and ultimately resulted in the exile of Earl Godwin of Wessex.

In 1066, the most famous Norman leader, William I of England, conquered England. The invading Normans and their descendants replaced the Anglo-Saxons as the ruling class of England. After an initial period of resentment and rebellion, the two populations largely intermarried and merged, combining languages and traditions. Normans began to identify themselves as Anglo-Norman.Eventually, even this distinction largely disappeared in the course of the Hundred Years war, with the Anglo-Norman aristocracy increasingly identifying themselves as English. The Anglo-Norman language was considerably distinct from the French language; this was the subject of some humour by Geoffrey Chaucer. The Anglo-Norman and Anglo-Saxon language languages eventually merged to form Middle English.

Even after the dukedom of Normandy was lost by the English Crown (although the Channel Islands were retained), and there were several changes of dynasty, the connection to modern France was long maintained. The nobility of England were part of a single French-speaking culture, and many had lands on both sides of the channel and owed fealty to kings of France and of England. The Kings of England included parts (often large parts) of modern France in their dominions, and did not necessarily consider England their most important holding (although it brought the title of King - an important status symbol). Nor did medieval Kings consider England to be owned by Normandy, since if it were considered such it would be under the control of the King of France, Normandy being his vassal. King Richard I (the Lionheart) is often thought to epitomise a medieval English King, but spent more time in Aquitaine or on Crusade than in England, and was not brought up to speak English: in fact, no English King until Richard II was a native speaker. Most medieval English Kings had a claim to the throne of France.

Normans in Wales in Wales, first built by William fitzOsbern in 1067.Even before the Norman Conquest of England, the Normans had come into contact with Wales. Edward the Confessor had set up the aforementioned Ralph as earl of Hereford and charged him with defending the Marches and warring with the Welsh. In these original ventures, the Normans failed to make any headway into Wales.

Subsequent to the Conquest, however, the Marches came completely under the dominance of William's most trusted Norman barons, including Bernard de Neufmarché, Roger de Montgomerie, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury in Shropshire and Hugh, 1st Earl of Chester in Cheshire. These Normans began a long period of slow conquest during which almost all of Wales was at some point subject to Norman interference. Norman words, such as baron (barwn), first entered Welsh language at that time.

Normans on Crusade The legendary religious zeal of the Normans was exercised in religious wars long before the First Crusade carved out a Norman Principality of Antioch. They were major foreign participants in the Reconquista in Spain. In 1018, Roger de Tony travelled to Spain to carve out a state for himself from Moorish lands, but failed. In 1064, during the War of Barbastro, William of Montreuil led the papal army and took a huge booty.

In 1096, Crusaders passing by the siege of Amalfi were joined by Bohemund I of Antioch and his nephew Tancred, Prince of Galilee with an army of Italo-Normans. Bohemond was the de facto leader of the Crusade during its passage through Asia Minor. After the successful Siege of Antioch in 1097, Bohemond began carving out an independent principality around that city. Tancred was instrumental in the conquest of Jerusalem and he worked for the expansion of the Kingdom of Jerusalem in Transjordan and the region of Galilee.

Normans in Scotland One of the claimants of the English throne opposing William I of England, Edgar Atheling, eventually fled to Scotland. King Malcolm III of Scotland of Scotland married Edgar's sister Saint Margaret of Scotland, and came into opposition to William who had already disputed Scotland's southern borders. William invaded Scotland in 1072, riding as far as the Abernethy, Perth and Kinross where he met up with his fleet of ships. Malcolm submitted, paid homage to William, and surrendered his son Duncan II of Scotland as a hostage, beginning a series of arguments as to whether the Scottish Crown owed allegiance to the English King.

Normans came into Scotland, building castles and founding noble families who would provide some future kings such as Robert I of Scotland as well as founding some of the Scottish clans. King David I of Scotland was instrumental in introducing Normans and Norman culture to Kingdom of Scotland, part of the process some scholars call the "Davidian Revolution". Having spent time at the court of Henry I of England (married to David's sister Edith of Scotland), and needing them to wrestle the kingdom from his half-brother Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair, David had to reward many with lands. The process was continued under David's successors, most intensely of all under William I of Scotland. The Norman-derived feudal system was applied in varying degrees to most of Scotland.

Normans in Ireland .The Normans had a profound effect on Irish culture and history. Initially (that is, the twelfth century) the Normans maintained a distinct culture and ethnicity, they came to be subsumed into Irish culture to the point that it has been said that they became "More Irish than the Irish themselves (slogan)." The Normans settled mostly in an area in the east of Ireland, later known as the Pale, and also built many fine castles and settlements, including Trim Castle and Dublin Castle. Both cultures intermixed, borrowing from each other's language, culture and outlook. Norman descendants today can be recognised by their surnames. Names such as Ffrench, De Roche and Leacy are particularly common in the southeast of Ireland, especially in the southern part of County Wexford where the first Norman settlements were established.

Rulers

Norman culture in London. Architecture The Normans' architecture typically stands out as a new stage in the architectural history of the regions which they subdued. They spread a unique Romanesque architecture to England and Italy and the encastellation of these regions with keeps in their north French style fundamentally altered the military landscape. Their style was characterised by rounded arches (particularly over windows and doorways) and massive proportions.

In Italy, the Normans incoporated elements of the native Islamic architecture, Lombards#Architecture, and Byzantine architecture into their own, initiating a style known as Sicilian Romanesque. In England, the period of Norman architecture immediately succeeds that of the Anglo-Saxon architecture and precedes the Gothic architecture.

Visual arts .In the visual arts, the Normans did not have the rich and distinctive traditions of the cultures they conquered. However, in the early eleventh century the dukes began a programme of church reform, encouraging the Cluniac reform of monasteries and patronising intellectual pursuits, especially the proliferation of scriptoria and the reconstitution of a compilation of lost illuminated manuscripts. The church was utilised by the dukes as a unifying force for their disparate duchy. The chief monasteries taking part in this "renaissance" of Norman art and scholarship were Mont-Saint-Michel, Fécamp, Jumièges, Bec, Saint-Ouen, Rouen, Saint-Evroul, and Saint-Wandrille. These centres were in contact with the so-called "Winchester school", which channeled a pure Carolingian artistic tradition to Normandy. In the final decade of the eleventh and the first of twelfth century, Normandy experienced a golden age of illustrated manuscripts, but it was brief and the major scriptoria of Normandy ceased to function after the midpoint of the century.

The Wars of Religion in the sixteenth century and French Revolution in the eighteenth successively destroyed much of what existed in the way of the architectural and artistic remnant of this Norman creativity. The first by their violence caused the wanton destruction of many Norman edifices; and the second by its assault on religion caused the purposeful destruction of religious objects of any type and by its destablisation of society resulted in rampant pillaging.

By far the most famous work of Norman art is the Bayeux Tapestry, which is not a tapestry but a work of embroidery. It was commissioned by Odo of Bayeux, the Bishop of Bayeux and first Earl of Kent, employing natives from Kent who were learned in the Nordic traditions imported in the previous half century by the Danes Vikings.

In Britain, Norman art primarily survives as stonework or metalwork, such as capital (column) and baptismal fonts. In southern Italy, however, Norman artwork survives plentifully in forms strongly influenced by its Greek, Lombard, and Arab forebears. Of the royal regalia preserved in Palermo, the crown is Byzantine in style and the coronation cloak is of Arab craftsmanship with Arabic language inscriptions. Many churches preserve sculptured fonts, capitals, and more importantly mosaics, which were common in Norman Italy and drew heavily on the Greek heritage. Lombard Salerno was a centre of ivorywork in the eleventh century and this continued under Norman domination. Finally should be noted the intercourse between French Crusaders travelling to the Holy Land who brough with them French artefacts with which to gift the churches at which they stopped in southern Italy amongs their Norman cousins. For this reason many south Italian churches preserve works from France alongside their native pieces.

Music on the lyre (or harp) in the middle of the back of the initial 'B'.Normandy was the site of several important developments in the history of Western music in the eleventh century. The monasteries of Fécamp and Saint-Evroul were centres of musical production and education. At Fécamp, under two Italian abbots, William of Volpiano and John of Ravenna, the system of denoting notes by letters was developed and taught. It is still the most common form of pitch representation in English- and German-speaking countries today. Also at Fécamp, the staff, around which neumes were oriented, was first developed and taught in the eleventh century. Under the German abbot Isembard of La Trinité-du-Mont, La Trinité-du-Mont became a centre of musical composition.

At Saint Evroul, a tradition of singing had developed and the choir achieved fame in Normandy. Under the Norman abbot Robert de Grantmesnil, several monks of Saint-Evroul fled to southern Italy, where they were patronised by Robert Guiscard and established a Latin monastery at Sant'Eufemia. There they continued the tradition of singing.

References Bibliography Primary sources

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The Normans were a people from medieval northern France, deriving to a large extent their aristocratic origins from Scandinavia (the name is adapted from the name "Northmen" or "Norsemen"). They played a major political, military and cultural role in the northern and Mediterranean parts of medieval Europe and the Near East, eg. the colonisation (and naming) of Normandy, the Norman Conquest of England of England, the establishment of states in Norman conquest of southern Italy, and the crusades.

In fact, by the time of the invasion of England, most "Normans" were derived from the indigenous populations of eastern Brittany and western Flanders, but their lords retained a memory of their own Viking origins. They began to occupy the northern area of France now known as Normandy in the latter half of the 9th century. In 911, Charles the Simple, king of France, granted the invaders the small lower Seine area, which expanded over time to become the Duchy of Normandy. The invaders were under the leadership of Rollo of Normandy, who swore allegiance to Charles the Simple.

The Norman people adopted Christianity and the Gallo-Romance languages and created a new cultural identity separate from that of their Scandinavian forebears and French neighbours. Norman culture, like that of many other migrant communities, was particularly enterprising and adaptable. For a time, it led them to occupy widely dispersed territories throughout Europe.

The Normans should not be confused with the Northmen, that is, the Vikings from the North. In Russian historiography, however, the term "Norman", is often used for the Varangians, as for example in the term "Rus' (people)#The Normanist theory ". In French historiography, too, the term is often applied to the various Viking groups which raided France in the ninth century before settling down to found Normandy.

Norman characteristics In a famous passage, Geoffrey Malaterra characterised the Normans thusly:specially marked by cunning, despising their own inheritance in the hope of winning a greater, eager after both gain and dominion, given to imitation of all kinds, holding a certain mean between lavishness and greediness, that is, perhaps uniting, as they certainly did, these two seemingly opposite qualities. Their chief men were specially lavish through their desire of good report. They were, moreover, a race skillful in flattery, given to the study of eloquence, so that the very boys were orators, a race altogether unbridled unless held firmly down by the yoke of justice. They were enduring of toil, hunger, and cold whenever fortune laid it on them, given to hunting and hawking, delighting in the pleasure of horses, and of all the weapons and garb of war."Malaterra in Peter Gunn, Normandy: Landscape with Figures.Their quick adaptability expressed itself in the shrewd Norman willingness to take on local men of talent, to marry the high-born local women; confidently illiterate Norman masters used the literate clerks of the church for their own purpose.

Normans and Normandy Geographically, Normandy was approximately the same region as the old church province of Rouen and what was called Brittania Nova as well as western Flanders. It had no natural frontiers and was previously merely an administrative unit. Historically, its population was mostly French people. Added on top of that were the Viking settlers who had begun arriving in the 880s, and who were divided between a small colony in Upper (or eastern) Normandy and a larger one in Lower (or western) Normandy.

In the course of the 10th century the initial destructive incursions of Norse war bands into the rivers of Gaul evolved into more permanent encampments that included women and chattel. The paganism culture was driven underground by the Christian faith and Gallo-Romance languages of the local people. The small group of Vikings that settled there adopted the language and culture of the French majority. After a generation or two, the Normans were generally indistinguishable from their French neighbours.

In Normandy they adopted the growing feudal doctrines of the rest of northern France, and worked them, both in Normandy and in England, into a functional hierarchical system. The Norman warrior class was new and different from the old French nobility, many of whom could trace their families back to Carolingian times, while the Normans could seldom cite ancestors before the beginning of the 11th century. Most knights remained poor and land-hungry; by 1066, Normandy had been exporting fighting horsemen for more than a generation. Knighthood before the time of the Crusades held little social status, and simply indicated that a man was a professional warrior and wealthy enough to own a war horse. Many Normans of France and Britain would eventually serve as avid Crusaders.

The Norman language was forged by the adoption of the indigenous Oïl languages by a Old Norse language-speaking ruling class developed into the Languages of France which survives today.

Norman conquests Normans in Italy .Opportunistic bands of Normans successfully established a foothold far to the south of Normandy. Probably the result of returning pilgrims' stories, the Normans entered the Mezzogiorno as warriors in 1017 at the latest. In 999, according to Amatus of Montecassino, pilgrims returning from Jerusalem called in at the port of Salerno, when a Saracen attack occurred. The Normans fought so valiantly that Guaimar IV of Salerno begged them to stay, but they refused and instead offered to tell others back home of the prince's request. William of Apulia tells that, in 1016, pilgrims to the shrine of the Archangel Michael at Monte Gargano were met by Melus of Bari, a lombards freedom-fighter, who persuaded them to return with more warriors to help throw off the byzantine Empire rule, and so they did.

The two most prominent families to arrive in the Mediterranean were the descendants of Tancred of Hauteville and the Drengots, of whom Rainulf Drengot received the county of Aversa, the first Norman toehold in the south, from Duke Sergius IV of Naples in 1030. The Hauteville family achieved princely status when they proclaimed Prince Guaimar IV of Salerno "Duke of Apulia and Calabria". He promptly awarded their elected leader, William Iron Arm, with the title of count with his capital of Melfi. Soon the Drengots had attained unto the principality of Capua and the Emperor Henry III had legally ennobled the Hauteville leader, Drogo of Hauteville, as dux et magister Italiae comesque Normannorum totius Apuliae et Calabriae in 1047.

, a Siculo-Norman palace in PalermoFrom these bases, the Normans were eventually able to capture Sicily and Malta from the Saracens under the famous Robert Guiscard, a Hauteville, and his young brother Roger I of Sicily. Roger's son, Roger II of Sicily, was crowned king in 1130 (exactly one century after Rainulf was "crowned" count) by Pope Anacletus II. The kingdom of Sicily lasted until 1194, when it fell to the Hohenstaufens through marriage.

The Normans left their mark however in the many castles, such as the Iron Arm's fortress at Squillace, and cathedrals, such as Roger II's at Cefalù, which dot the landscape and give a wholly distinct architectural flavour to accompany its unique history. Institutionally, the Normans combined the administrative machinery of the Byzantines, Arabs, and Lombards with their own conceptions of feudal law and order to forge a completely unique government. Under this state, there was great religious freedom, and alongside the Norman nobles existed a meritocratic bureaucracy of Jews, Moslems, and Christians, both Catholic and Orthodox.

Normans in Byzantium Soon after the Normans first began to enter Italy, they entered the Byzantine Empire and soon thereafter Armenia against the Pechenegs, Bulgars, and especially Seljuk Turks. The Norman mercenaries first encouraged to come to the south by the Lombards to act against the Byzantines were soon fighting in Byzantine service in Sicily. They were prominent alongside Varangian and Lombard contingents in the Sicilian campaign of George Maniaches of 1038-1040. There is some debate concerning whether the Normans in Greek service were mostly or at all from Norman Italy and it now seems likely that only a few came from there. It is also unknown how many of the "Franks", as the Byzantines called them, were Normans and not other Frenchmen.

One of the first Norman mercenaries to serve as a Byzantine general was Hervé (Norman) in the 1050s. By then however there were already Norman mercenaries serving as far away as Trebizond and Georgia (country). They were based at Malatya and Edessa, Mesopotamia, under the Byzantine duke of Antioch, Isaac Komnenos, Duke of Antioch. In the 1060s, one Robert Crispin led the Normans of Edessa against the Turks. Roussel de Bailleul even tried to carve out an independent state in Asia Minor and had the support of the local population, but he was stopped by the Byzantine general Alexius I Comnenus.

Some Normans joined Turkish forces and aided in the destruction of the Armenians vassal-states of Sassoun and Taron in far eastern Anatolia. Later, many took up service with the Armenian states further south in Cilicia and the Taurus Mountains. A Norman named Oursel led a force of "Franks" into the upper Euphrates valley in northern Syria. From 1073 to 1074, 8,000 of the 20,000 troops of the Armenian general Philaretus Brachamius were Normans — formerly of Oursel — led by Raimbaud. They even lent their ethnicity to the name of their castle: Afranji, meaning "Franks." The known trade between Republic of Amalfi and Antioch and between Bari and Tarsus (city) may be related to the presence of Italo-Normans in those cities while Amalfi and Bari were under Norman rule in Italy.

Several families of Byzantine Greece were of Norman mercenary origin during the period of the Comnenian Restoration, when Byzantine emperors were seeking out western European warriors. The Raoulii were descended from an Italo-Norman named Raoul, the Petraliphae were descended from a Pierre d'Aulps, and that group of Albanian clans known as the Maniakates were descended from Normans who served under George Maniaches in the Sicilian expedition of 1038.

Normans in England castle from the Bayeux Tapestry.The Normans were in contact with England from an early date. Not only were their original pagan Viking brethren still ravaging the English coasts, but they occupied most of the important ports opposite England across the English Channel. This relationship eventually produced closer ties of blood through the marriage of Emma of Normandy, sister of Duke Richard II of Normandy, and King Ethelred II of England. Because of this, Ethelred fled to Normandy in 1013, when he was forced from his kingdom by Sweyn Forkbeard. His stay in Normandy (until 1016) influenced him and his sons by Emma, who stayed in Normandy after Canute the Great's conquest of the isle. When finally Edward the Confessor returned from his father's refuge in 1041, at the invitation of his half-brother Hardecanute, he brought with him a very Norman-educated mind. He also brought many Norman counsellors and fighters. He even hired a small number of Normans to train and establish an English cavalry force. This concept never really took root, but it is a typical example of the attitudes of Edward. He appointed Robert of Jumieges archbishop of Canterbury and made Ralph the Timid earl of Hereford. He invited his brother-in-law Eustace II of Boulogne to his court in 1051, an event which resulted in the greatest of early conflicts between Saxon and Norman and ultimately resulted in the exile of Earl Godwin of Wessex.

In 1066, the most famous Norman leader, William I of England, conquered England. The invading Normans and their descendants replaced the Anglo-Saxons as the ruling class of England. After an initial period of resentment and rebellion, the two populations largely intermarried and merged, combining languages and traditions. Normans began to identify themselves as Anglo-Norman.Eventually, even this distinction largely disappeared in the course of the Hundred Years war, with the Anglo-Norman aristocracy increasingly identifying themselves as English. The Anglo-Norman language was considerably distinct from the French language; this was the subject of some humour by Geoffrey Chaucer. The Anglo-Norman and Anglo-Saxon language languages eventually merged to form Middle English.

Even after the dukedom of Normandy was lost by the English Crown (although the Channel Islands were retained), and there were several changes of dynasty, the connection to modern France was long maintained. The nobility of England were part of a single French-speaking culture, and many had lands on both sides of the channel and owed fealty to kings of France and of England. The Kings of England included parts (often large parts) of modern France in their dominions, and did not necessarily consider England their most important holding (although it brought the title of King - an important status symbol). Nor did medieval Kings consider England to be owned by Normandy, since if it were considered such it would be under the control of the King of France, Normandy being his vassal. King Richard I (the Lionheart) is often thought to epitomise a medieval English King, but spent more time in Aquitaine or on Crusade than in England, and was not brought up to speak English: in fact, no English King until Richard II was a native speaker. Most medieval English Kings had a claim to the throne of France.

Normans in Wales in Wales, first built by William fitzOsbern in 1067.Even before the Norman Conquest of England, the Normans had come into contact with Wales. Edward the Confessor had set up the aforementioned Ralph as earl of Hereford and charged him with defending the Marches and warring with the Welsh. In these original ventures, the Normans failed to make any headway into Wales.

Subsequent to the Conquest, however, the Marches came completely under the dominance of William's most trusted Norman barons, including Bernard de Neufmarché, Roger de Montgomerie, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury in Shropshire and Hugh, 1st Earl of Chester in Cheshire. These Normans began a long period of slow conquest during which almost all of Wales was at some point subject to Norman interference. Norman words, such as baron (barwn), first entered Welsh language at that time.

Normans on Crusade The legendary religious zeal of the Normans was exercised in religious wars long before the First Crusade carved out a Norman Principality of Antioch. They were major foreign participants in the Reconquista in Spain. In 1018, Roger de Tony travelled to Spain to carve out a state for himself from Moorish lands, but failed. In 1064, during the War of Barbastro, William of Montreuil led the papal army and took a huge booty.

In 1096, Crusaders passing by the siege of Amalfi were joined by Bohemund I of Antioch and his nephew Tancred, Prince of Galilee with an army of Italo-Normans. Bohemond was the de facto leader of the Crusade during its passage through Asia Minor. After the successful Siege of Antioch in 1097, Bohemond began carving out an independent principality around that city. Tancred was instrumental in the conquest of Jerusalem and he worked for the expansion of the Kingdom of Jerusalem in Transjordan and the region of Galilee.

Normans in Scotland One of the claimants of the English throne opposing William I of England, Edgar Atheling, eventually fled to Scotland. King Malcolm III of Scotland of Scotland married Edgar's sister Saint Margaret of Scotland, and came into opposition to William who had already disputed Scotland's southern borders. William invaded Scotland in 1072, riding as far as the Abernethy, Perth and Kinross where he met up with his fleet of ships. Malcolm submitted, paid homage to William, and surrendered his son Duncan II of Scotland as a hostage, beginning a series of arguments as to whether the Scottish Crown owed allegiance to the English King.

Normans came into Scotland, building castles and founding noble families who would provide some future kings such as Robert I of Scotland as well as founding some of the Scottish clans. King David I of Scotland was instrumental in introducing Normans and Norman culture to Kingdom of Scotland, part of the process some scholars call the "Davidian Revolution". Having spent time at the court of Henry I of England (married to David's sister Edith of Scotland), and needing them to wrestle the kingdom from his half-brother Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair, David had to reward many with lands. The process was continued under David's successors, most intensely of all under William I of Scotland. The Norman-derived feudal system was applied in varying degrees to most of Scotland.

Normans in Ireland .The Normans had a profound effect on Irish culture and history. Initially (that is, the twelfth century) the Normans maintained a distinct culture and ethnicity, they came to be subsumed into Irish culture to the point that it has been said that they became "More Irish than the Irish themselves (slogan)." The Normans settled mostly in an area in the east of Ireland, later known as the Pale, and also built many fine castles and settlements, including Trim Castle and Dublin Castle. Both cultures intermixed, borrowing from each other's language, culture and outlook. Norman descendants today can be recognised by their surnames. Names such as Ffrench, De Roche and Leacy are particularly common in the southeast of Ireland, especially in the southern part of County Wexford where the first Norman settlements were established.

Rulers

Norman culture in London. Architecture The Normans' architecture typically stands out as a new stage in the architectural history of the regions which they subdued. They spread a unique Romanesque architecture to England and Italy and the encastellation of these regions with keeps in their north French style fundamentally altered the military landscape. Their style was characterised by rounded arches (particularly over windows and doorways) and massive proportions.

In Italy, the Normans incoporated elements of the native Islamic architecture, Lombards#Architecture, and Byzantine architecture into their own, initiating a style known as Sicilian Romanesque. In England, the period of Norman architecture immediately succeeds that of the Anglo-Saxon architecture and precedes the Gothic architecture.

Visual arts .In the visual arts, the Normans did not have the rich and distinctive traditions of the cultures they conquered. However, in the early eleventh century the dukes began a programme of church reform, encouraging the Cluniac reform of monasteries and patronising intellectual pursuits, especially the proliferation of scriptoria and the reconstitution of a compilation of lost illuminated manuscripts. The church was utilised by the dukes as a unifying force for their disparate duchy. The chief monasteries taking part in this "renaissance" of Norman art and scholarship were Mont-Saint-Michel, Fécamp, Jumièges, Bec, Saint-Ouen, Rouen, Saint-Evroul, and Saint-Wandrille. These centres were in contact with the so-called "Winchester school", which channeled a pure Carolingian artistic tradition to Normandy. In the final decade of the eleventh and the first of twelfth century, Normandy experienced a golden age of illustrated manuscripts, but it was brief and the major scriptoria of Normandy ceased to function after the midpoint of the century.

The Wars of Religion in the sixteenth century and French Revolution in the eighteenth successively destroyed much of what existed in the way of the architectural and artistic remnant of this Norman creativity. The first by their violence caused the wanton destruction of many Norman edifices; and the second by its assault on religion caused the purposeful destruction of religious objects of any type and by its destablisation of society resulted in rampant pillaging.

By far the most famous work of Norman art is the Bayeux Tapestry, which is not a tapestry but a work of embroidery. It was commissioned by Odo of Bayeux, the Bishop of Bayeux and first Earl of Kent, employing natives from Kent who were learned in the Nordic traditions imported in the previous half century by the Danes Vikings.

In Britain, Norman art primarily survives as stonework or metalwork, such as capital (column) and baptismal fonts. In southern Italy, however, Norman artwork survives plentifully in forms strongly influenced by its Greek, Lombard, and Arab forebears. Of the royal regalia preserved in Palermo, the crown is Byzantine in style and the coronation cloak is of Arab craftsmanship with Arabic language inscriptions. Many churches preserve sculptured fonts, capitals, and more importantly mosaics, which were common in Norman Italy and drew heavily on the Greek heritage. Lombard Salerno was a centre of ivorywork in the eleventh century and this continued under Norman domination. Finally should be noted the intercourse between French Crusaders travelling to the Holy Land who brough with them French artefacts with which to gift the churches at which they stopped in southern Italy amongs their Norman cousins. For this reason many south Italian churches preserve works from France alongside their native pieces.

Music on the lyre (or harp) in the middle of the back of the initial 'B'.Normandy was the site of several important developments in the history of Western music in the eleventh century. The monasteries of Fécamp and Saint-Evroul were centres of musical production and education. At Fécamp, under two Italian abbots, William of Volpiano and John of Ravenna, the system of denoting notes by letters was developed and taught. It is still the most common form of pitch representation in English- and German-speaking countries today. Also at Fécamp, the staff, around which neumes were oriented, was first developed and taught in the eleventh century. Under the German abbot Isembard of La Trinité-du-Mont, La Trinité-du-Mont became a centre of musical composition.

At Saint Evroul, a tradition of singing had developed and the choir achieved fame in Normandy. Under the Norman abbot Robert de Grantmesnil, several monks of Saint-Evroul fled to southern Italy, where they were patronised by Robert Guiscard and established a Latin monastery at Sant'Eufemia. There they continued the tradition of singing.

References Bibliography Primary sources

Secondary literature

External links



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